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- Sentences are constructed according to a system of rules and summari=
zed
in a grammar > grammatical
- Sentences are the largest constructions to which the rules of a gram=
mar
apply > to identify sentences we need to know something about gra=
mmatical
analysis
- Sentences are constructions which can be used on their own > unit=
s of
meaning which seem to ‘make sense’ by themselves
- (D. Crystal, Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English Language, p.214-=
5)
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- Major sentences are usually broken down into a specific and predicta=
ble
pattern of elements
- clauses
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- Clause elements combine into a very small number of elements:
- Subject (usually before the verb)
- Object (follow the subject and verb in a clause. Direct/indirect)
- Verb
- Complements (express a meaning which adds to that of another clause
element – either the subject [subject complement] or the object
[object complement].
Ex. She is a doctor; He became angry; They elected Bush presi=
dent).
- Adverbials (add information; link some clauses together, add a comme=
nt:
ex. I walked quietly; The bus was full. However, I found a seat; Fra=
nkly,
I think it is wrong; They walked home; I laughed when I saw you; I p=
ut
the book on the table)
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- Phrase
- syntactic construction which contains more than one word, but which
generally lacks the subject-predicate structure
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- Four constituents:
- 1. HEAD: the most important constituent around which any other
constituents cluster
- His new book is interesting
- His new books are interesting
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- 2.DETERMINER: appear before the noun. It decides what kind of noun i=
s in
the phrase (definite, indefinite, proper, common, count or noncount,
etc.)
- Some, those, any, the, a etc.
- 2 a. Expressions of quantity appearing before the determiner are cal=
led PREDETERMINERS
- All the people, twice the cost, half the money
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- 2 b. Those which immediately follow the determiner, preceding any
adjectives, are called POSTDETERMINERS
- my three fat cats; the second big party
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- 3. PREMODIFICATION comprises any other words appearing between the
determiner and the head noun (adjectives or adjectives-like words)
- those lovely old French spoon
- 4. POSTMODIFICATION comprise everything which appears in the phrase
after the head (chiefly prepositional phrases, finite clauses, nonfi=
nite
clauses, adverbs and adjectives, as well)
- The car in the garden; the film that I saw;
something different; the journey home
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- The balance point of the scales
- Her pensive stillness
- A balanced life
- That extraordinary control over his paints
- Other works by Vermeer
- The second of these chronologically sequential installations
- A single exhibition presented in three chronologically sequential pa=
rts
- The use of language and signs in the works by Andy Warhol
- And the second floor Film and Media Gallery
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- 10. A combination of both: to spinster or to leak
- 11. many of the techniques of hypertext fiction
- 12. One of the most engaging reflections on the nature of the book
- 13. All the apparent ‘naturalness’ of its faux
conversational tone
- 14. A very different kind of black page to compose the description
- 15. The interactive installation ‘Commotion’
- 16. In the field of interactive design not all the approaches
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- A book has fallen on John’s foot
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- A clause is a unit which contains a subject and a verb.
- It was raining
- Every sentence MUST co=
ntain at
least one clause, but it may contain more than one.
- A book has fallen on John’s foot | and | a book has falle=
n on
Mary’s foot
- They are independent clauses because each one would be a good sent=
ence
on its own -- each one is a "complete thought".
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- Two clauses in the same sentence may be related either by
- Coordination (compound sentence)
- or by
- Subordination (complex sentence)
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- Two clauses are ‘=
;equal
partners’ in the same structure
-
It is raining so I take my umbrella
- coordinating conjunction
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- A coordinating conjunction is used to join two independent clauses w=
hich
are equally important. A coordinating conjunction usually comes in t=
he
middle of a sentence, and it usually follows a comma (unless both
clauses are very short).
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- These are the most important coordinating conjunctions:
- Conjunction Function Example
- And >> joins two similar ideas together
- He lives in Victoria, and he studies at UVic.
- But >> joins two contrasting ideas
- John is Canadian, but Sally is English.
- Or >> joins two alternative ideas
- I could cook some supper, or we could order a pizza.
- So >> shows that the second idea is the result of the first
- She was sick, so she went to the doctor.
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- These conjunctions are also used:
- nor (joining two negative alternatives)
- for (meaning "because“I was surprise at his being late fo=
r he
is usually so punctual)
- yet (meaning "but" He had everything he could desire, yet =
he
was unhappy)
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- There are three things to remember when using coordinating conjuncti=
ons:
- each clause must be a "complete thought" which could be a
sentence on its own.
- put the conjunction in the middle (You may see some sentences starti=
ng
with "but" or "and", but this is USUALLY wrong.)=
- use a comma (unless both clauses are very short)
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- In a compound sentence, the clauses on either side of the conjuncti=
on
have equal weight: they are both main clauses.
- These co-ordinating conjunctions do not suggest that one clause
- is subordinate to the another.
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- one clause, which we call a SUBCLAUSE, is included in the other, wh=
ich
we call MAIN CLAUSE
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- A subclause can also have another subclause inside it, which means t=
hat
it behaves as a ‘main clause’ with respect to the other
clause:
- I know | that you can =
do it
| if you try
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- A main clause can be a=
finite
clause
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- A subclause, can be a finite, a non-finite or a verbless clause:
- The result was what I wanted > finite
- Studying English is useful > non –finite
- The castle, now empty, was allowed to fall into ruin > verbless<=
/li>
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- More examples:
- Present participle: Finding some of my friends, I sat down by
them.
Past participle: Abandoned in the forest, Alice began to
cry.
Infinitive: To call the waiter, he had to stand on a chair.
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- In non-finite subordinate clauses, the subject understood in the sub=
ordinate
clause must be the same as the subject in the main clause.
- [Alice was] abandoned in the forest. Alice began to cry.
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- Failure to check that the subject is identified correctly can result=
in bizarre
sentences, such as:
- Fried in garlic and olive oil, our guests enjoyed the mushrooms.
- This suggests that the guests were fried in garlic and olive oil.
- This particular misdemeanour is known as a misrelated participle. In
casual speech, such errors can often pass unnoticed because the mean=
ing
is carried by intonation.
- Misrelated participles are quite easy to fix. If the clause modifies=
the
object, it should be moved to follow the object.
- Our guests enjoyed the mushrooms fried in garlic and olive oil.
- (http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/exp_lang/conj=
unctions.html)
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- In both cases, the non-finite clause (not in bold) could also split =
the
main clause (in bold) with implications for punctuation.
- Smiling to himself, Robin at last returned to the forest.
- Robin, smiling to himself, at last returned to the forest
- Tired of waiting, Miriam had gone to bed.
- Marian, tired of waiting, had gone to bed
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- VERBLESS SUBCLAUSES : are clauses which contain no verb element, and
also often no subject. They are regarded as clauses because they
function in ways which make them equivalent to finite and non-finite
clauses, and because that can be analysed in terms of one or more cl=
ause
elements. We can usually assume that a form of the verb ‘to
be’ has been omitted:
- The castle, now empty, was allowed to fall into ruin.
- Dozen of tourists were stranded, many of them children (subject +
complement)
- A passport in his pocket, Mr Johnson left. (subject + adverbial)
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- When the subject is omitted it is clearly understood to be as equiva=
lent
to the subject of the main clause.
- The oranges, when ripe, are picked and sorted (When they are ripe)
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- An adjective can function as a verbless clause:
- By then nervous, the man opened the letter
- The man, by then nervous, opened the letter
- Nervous, the man opened the letter
- Anxious for a quick decision, the chairman
called for a vote
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- An adverb may sometimes replace an adjective functioning as a verble=
ss
clauses:
- Nervously, the man opened the letter
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- Subclauses are usually marked by&nb=
sp;
some signal of subordination:
- a. that, which may usually be omitted [conjunction]
- I hope (that) you’ll like this place
- b. a subordinating conjunction, such as if [conjunction]
- I ‘ll be surprised if he can do it
- c. a wh- word
- We asked him where he had
been all night.
- d. Inversion (rather formal)
- Had I known, I wouldn’t have come.
- e. lack of a finite verb
- I hope to see you tonight
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- SIMPLE subordinating conjunction:
- After, although, as, because, before, if, however, like, once, since,
that, till, unless, until, when, while, where, whereupon.
- COMPOUND subordinating
conjunctions:
- In that, so that, in order that/to, such that, except that, for all
that, such that, except that, all that, save that
- But (that), now (that), supposing (that), given (that), admitting (that),
assuming (that), presu=
ming
(that).
- As far as, as long as, as soon as, inasmuch as (very formal), accord=
ing
as, so as (+ to infinitive)
- Sooner than (+ non –finitive), rather than (non-finite clause)=
- As if, in case
- CORRELATIVE subordinating conjunctions
- - if … then, although … yet/nevertheless, as…so
- - more/less/-er …than, as …as, so…as, so…tha=
t,
such … as, such (that), no sooner …than
- - whether …or
- - the …then
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- Nominal clauses
A subordinate clause that can function as subject, object, co=
mplement
or complement of a preposition is referred to as a nominal clause.
- A nominal clause can be finite or non-finite.
- 1. That-clauses
- That she’s still alive is sheer luck. (subject)
- I told him that he was wrong (direct object)
- The assumption is that things will improve (subject complement)
- Your assumption, that things will improve, is not well-founded
(appositive)
- I am sure that things will improve (complement of an adjective)
- When that is object, complement or postponed subject, it is frequent=
ly
omitted in informal use:
- I told him he was wrong
- I am sure he was wrong
- I know you are leaving
- It is a pity you are leaving.
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- b. Wh-interrogative subclauses
- How the book will sell largely depends on its author (subject)
- I can’t imagine what made him do a thing like that (direct obj=
ect)
- The point is not who will go, but who will stay (Subject complement)=
- My original question, why he did it at all, has not yet been answere=
d.
(appositive)
- I wasn’t certain whose house we were in. (complement of an
adjective)
- None of us were consulted on who should have the job (complement of a
preposition).
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- c. Nominal relative clauses
- What John really needs is a wife (subject)
- Whoever wrote this book is a genius (subject)
- I want to see whoever deals with complaints (direct object)
- You will find what you need in this cupboard (direct object)
- She gave whoever came to the door a winning smile (indirect object)<=
/li>
- Home is where your friends and family are (subject complement)
- You can call me whatever names you like (object complement)
- Let us know your college address, that is, where you live during the
term (appositive)
- You should vote for whichever candidate you like best (complement of
preposition)
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- Nominal to-infinitive clauses
- For a bridge to collapse like that is unlikely (subject)
- He likes everyone to be happy (direct object)
- His ambition is to be a
pilot (subject complement)
- His ambition, to be a pilot, was never fulfilled (appositive)
- I am glad to be of help (complement of an adjective)
- The subject of a to-infinitive clause is normally introduced by for:=
- The idea is that we should meet on Thursday
- The idea is for us to meet on Thursday
- When the clause is a direct object, the for is omitted
- He wants us to meet on Thursday
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- Nominal –ing clauses
- Telling lies is wrong (subject)
- No one enjoys being disturbed in the middle of the night (direct obj=
ect)
- What he likes best is playing practical jokes (subject complement)
- He was absorbed in his hobby, collecting stamps. (appositive)
- I’m tired of being treated like a child (complement of a
preposition)
- The children were busy building sandcastles (complement of an adject=
ive)
- When the –ing clause has a subject there’s a choice betw=
een
genitive case in formal style:
- I am surprised at his/John’s making that mistake
- And informal style
- I am surprised at him/John making that mistake.
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- Like adverbs, adverbial clauses also tell how, why, when, where. As =
with
nominal clauses, adverbial clauses can be finite or non-finite.
- Finite adverbial clauses
Time: When you've finished the dishes, you can watch
television.
Place: Put the letter where Mike will see it.
Manner: We cook our vegetables as Chinese people do.
Reason: They put their umbrellas up because it was starting to
rain.
Concession: Although the weather was terrible, we still set
out.
Condition: You can have some ice cream if you eat your vegeta=
bles.
Purpose: She went on tip toes so that she wouldn't wake the b=
aby.
- Non-finite adverbial clauses
Time: After kissing them goodnight, she turned out the
light.
Place: Situated high on the hill, the house had a wonderful v=
iew
of the harbour.
Reason: Being a pacifist, he spent some time in prison during=
the
war.
- Manner: Everyone had to get across without touching the two poles.<=
/li>
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- Clauses can also act like adjectives. In this instance they are c=
alled relative
clauses and are embedded within the sentence.
- Relative clauses start with a pronoun who, whom, which, that.
- The dog, which was called Rover, was barking.
- Its owner, who was called Mr. Jones, was out.
- The neighbours, whom Rover was keeping awake, were annoyed.
- Finally, the dog that barked in the night fell asleep.
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- Relative clauses are introduced by relative pronouns
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- The video that we saw last night was a waste of money.
The man whose car was stolen was my next door neighbour.
The person who stole his car was an escaped prisoner.
- Whom is used mainly in formal written English:
- The teacher whom they appointed last year has been excellent.
- In casual speech, it would be more usual to use who:
The teacher who they appointed last year has been excellent.<=
/li>
- or even that:
The teacher that they appointed last year has been excellent.=
- Very formal usage:
The woman to whom she sent the parcel was Kim's aunt.
- Less formal usage:
The woman who she sent the parcel to was Kim's aunt.
- The relative pronoun can often be left out altogether:
The woman (who) she sent the parcel to was Kim's aunt.
The dog (that) we found on the beach has gone to a good home.=
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- Whom is used mainly in formal written English:
The teacher whom they appointed last year has been excellent.=
- In casual speech, it would be more usual to use who:
The teacher who they appointed last year has been excellent.<=
/li>
- or even that:
The teacher that they appointed last year has been excellent.=
- Very formal usage:
The woman to whom she sent the parcel was Kim's aunt.
- Less formal usage:
The woman who she sent the parcel to was Kim's aunt.
- The relative pronoun can often be left out altogether:
The woman (who) she sent the parcel to was Kim's aunt.
The dog (that) we found on the beach has gone to a good home.=
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